i will provide the powerpoint that helps to answer the questions that is given when it says describe means you describe it not write out the answer without describing it thank you :)i answered a couple. so please complete the rest ;)9. Management of Forests
1. Describe a forest community. How are deciduous and coniferous communities different?
EMERGENTS-most trees in the rain forests that are 20-40m tall, giant emergent trees
grow even higher
CANOPY-the main leaf area of the forest community, most trees would reach this level
high
UNDERSTORY- the area above ground up to the canopy structure
FOREST FLOOR-the area consisting of large animals and large numbers of insects that
cohabit here
Deciduous conifers have pyramidal, open crowns and shed their needles annually and
coniferous with straight cylindrical trunks. Whorled spreading branches and a crown
density that varies from dense to open crowns
-we live in a deciduous forest habitat where leaves fall
-coniferous forests have very few species of trees
2. What is silviculture and how is it practiced in the U.S.?
-tree farming, Christmas tree farms
In US we are experiencing a growth in the production of timber materials
3. Can the world’s forests supply our needs on a sustainable basis or is loss of forests inevitable? Explain
your reasoning using examples from this lecture.
The forests currently in the world cannot sustain our needs. With our very highly
increasing population our day to day needs require us to chop down more trees a day
than we can replace.
4. Describe even-aged and uneven-aged stand management. Do you think one method works better?
Why or why not?
Even aged stands create forests of a single species, so they are relatively easy to
maintain, and they can focus all their efforts on maximizing the growth of a single
species. Uneven structures are used to manage shade tolerant species. These help to
increase the size and health of a certain species being grown, so it in turn maximizes
the growth of these species. Both have their benefits, it really depends on the species
being grown and how it reacts with the different systems.
5. How can humans obtain all of our timber needs from forests without damaging them too much? Be
sure to talk about not only wood, but also other products that are used which come from forests.
By making sure to replace anything taken from the forest, the damage would be
lessened. By giving back and not just taking constantly you provide re growth and
regeneration of the ecosystem. Also, by minimizing losses and ensuring fires and
insects and disease issues remain low, the forest can regenerate from the timber and
other resources taken from forests.
6. Define each of the following forest ecology terms: zonation, succession structure and landscape
ecology.
Zonation: spatial change in species composition, community structure and function.
Succession: change in species composition, community structure and function over time at a
given location.
Structure: the 3-dimensional vertical stratification of vegetation at one point in both space and
time.
Landscape ecology: the study of the causes and consequences of spatial patterns in the
landscape.
7. List the five basic ideals of the field of landscape ecology.
1. Landscape is a mosaic.
2. Corridors influence organism movement.
3. Fragmentation creates patches.
4. Disturbance created heterogeneity.
5. Disturbances vary.
8. Describe the future of forest management. How would YOU manage a forest to maximize its
usefulness?
Multiple Choice
1. How much forested land exists in the U.S.?
a. 10%
b. 30%
c. 60%
d. 90%
2. Growing trees in a managed system of planting and harvest is known as
a. horticulture.
b. agriculture.
c. treticulture.
d. silviculture.
3. Forests remove ________________ and add ________________ to the atmosphere.
a. oxygen, carbon dioxide
b. nitrogen, oxygen
c. carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide
d. carbon dioxide, oxygen
4. Succession can be defined as
a. a spatial change in species composition, community structure and function.
b. a change in species composition, community structure and function over time at a given location.
c. a vertical stratification of vegetation at one point in both space and time.
d. the study of the causes and consequences of spatial patterns in the landscape.
5. The basic ideals of landscape ecology include
a. A patterned landscape consists of a mosaic of patches of different origins embedded in a matrix.
b. Patches and corridors influence physical flows and organism movements across a landscape.
c. Fragmentation of the environment results in habitat patches of various sizes.
d. All of these are ideals of landscape ecology.
6. The edge of a forest habitat is composed of areas of
a. boundary and side.
b. boundary and border.
c. border and side.
d. border and line.
7. The idea of a shifting-mosaic steady state is that
a. the process of succession is never-ending and is brought about by the continuous processes of birth,
growth and death of individuals within the community.
b. the process of moving from one type of tree to another.
c. the process of staying at a constant steady mosaic across the landscape.
d. the processes of the continuous birth, growth and death of individuals within the community have
no impact on the community.
8. From a purely economic standpoint, the rates of return on forestry are likely to be
a. high.
b. medium level.
c. reasonable.
d. low.
9. The five structural layers of stratification in most forests are
a. emergent, understory, lower layer, herb and immature.
b. emergent, canopy, understory, immature and herb.
c. immature, canopy, understory, lower layer and herb.
d. upper canopy, lower canopy, underside, emergent and herb.
10. The national forests of the U.S. are managed on
a. a sustainable-yield multiple-use basis.
b. a restricted-use basis.
c. a maximum timber production schedule.
d. the basis of political expectations.
11. The objectives of a typical forest management plan include
a. regeneration of a forest on a suitable site.
b. production of the maximum amount of timber possible for the site.
c. development of trees that are resistant to insects and disease
d. All of these are objectives of forest management.
12. One method for creating even-aged stands is the
a. clear-cutting method.
b. wood method
c. tree method
d. silviculture method.
13. In a typical forest, animals all live in the same levels of the canopy and eat the same food. This
brings about niche specialization.
a. True
b. False
14. Which of the following is NOT an objective of forest management?
a. minimize loss
b. maximize return
c. resistance to insects and diseases
d. regeneration
e. timber production
15. The greatest threat to US forests is:
a. landscape fragmentation.
b. urbanization.
c. invasive species.
d. Both A and B.
e. Both B and C.
10. Management of Urban Areas
1. List and describe at least five problems associated with urbanization.
Increased rate and severity of flooding
Increased erosion of stream banks and bottoms
Increased sedimentation
Increased chemical pollution
Altered biological populations
2. What is Low Impact Development and how is it useful?
Design each development site to protect, or restore, the natural hydrology of the site so that the
overall integrity of the watershed is protected. This is done by creating a hydrologically
functional landscape.
3. Draw a diagram showing the features of a low impact development in a residential or commercial area.
4. Describe your concept of a rain garden. How and where would you create one at George Mason
University? Be specific about your placement of the garden, please.
5. List and describe three benefits that can be obtained from buildings that have a green roof installed.
Stormwater
Reduce runoff volumes
Reduce pollutant loadings
Reduce energy consumption
Reduce urban heat island impacts
Decrease sound
Minimize waste by increasing roof durability
6. What is the largest impediment to the creation of green roofs, in your opinion?
7. Describe the concept of vertical farming. Be sure to include how it could be beneficial to the
growing human population.
8. You have been hired to use all of the current technology to design a green development. Describe
the techniques you would use and why you would use them. Be sure to hit all of the highlights
we talked about in class.
9. Think about our earlier discussion of water and the water cycle when you answer this question. Why
are low impact development and other forms of green development so centered on the hydrology of the
sites?
Multiple Choice
1. The movement of housing and shopping areas into areas that are more rural is known as
a. ruralization.
b. urban sprawl.
c. colonization.
d. rural sprawl.
2. Which of the following is not a fundamental principle of low impact development?
a. Conservation of natural areas.
b. Maximization of development impacts.
c. Maintenance of site runoff rate.
d. Utilization of integrated management practices.
3. Porous concrete is better than regular concrete because
a. it allows water to flow through it and into the ground water reservoir.
b. it decreases run-off.
c. it meets EPA regulations for stormwater regulations
d. All of these are true.
4. An integrated management practice is defined as
a. large-scale wastewater management controls that are strategically distributed throughout a
development site.
b. small-scale wastewater management controls that are strategically distributed throughout a
development site.
c. large-scale stormwater management controls that are strategically distributed throughout a
development site.
d. small-scale stormwater management controls that are strategically distributed throughout a
development site.
5. Bioretention is defined as
a. Biological removal of contaminants or nutrients.
b. Biological removal of contaminants or nutrients as oil passes through a media or biological
system
c. Biological removal of contaminants or nutrients as fluid passes through a media or a biological
system.
d. None of these are correct.
6. A green roof is defined as
a. a cool color for shingles on houses because it eliminates heat retention.
b. a roof that is partially or completely covered in plants that are planted over a waterproofing
membrane.
c. a building that has plants on the terrace.
d. a roof that is covered in plants each growing season but barren in the winter months
11. Pollution and Recycling
1. Define the term endocrine disruptor and give four examples.
2. You are in charge of cleaning up an oil spill. Describe how you would use bioremediation techniques
in order to accomplish this task.
3. Define the terms LC50 and LD50.
4. Define bioconcentration, bioaccumulation and biomagnification and give an example of each.
5. Toxic chemicals have the properties toxicity and hazard. Define each and explain how something can
be very hazardous but not very toxic.
6. Do pollutants always increase in concentration as they pass up the food chain? Explain.
Multiple Choice
1. Of the following organisms, which is the least likely to cause disease in humans when a human comes
into casual contact with it?
a. bacteria
b. protozoa
c. oak trees
d. viruses
2. Which of the following causes the largest source of air pollution?
a. agriculture
b. industry
c. transportation
d. residential
3. __________ is the biggest polluter of the environment in Fairfax County.
a. Motiva Springfield Terminal
b. Exxon Mobil Corp. Newington Terminal
c. Sicpa Securink Corporation
d. Crown Central Petroleum Corporation
4. Which of the following is greater?
a. acute effective concentration
b. chronic effective concentration
5. How are pollutants absorbed by terrestrial plants?
a. through the leaves from the air
b. through the roots from the soil
c. Both A and B.
d. Only A but not B.
e. Only B but not A.
6. Chemical pollution is which of the following?
a. Any acid or base that is potentially harmful to the environment.
b. Any soap that is potentially harmful to the environment.
c. Any chemical that is potentially harmful to the environment.
d. Any substance that is potentially harmful to the environment.
7. The peregrine falcon was driven to extremely low numbers because of
a. PCBs.
b. extreme predation.
c. DDT.
d. overhunting.
8. Recycling is often thought of as
a. reuse.
b. repurposing.
c. recovering.
d. All of these.
9. Recycling at George Mason University is overseen by
a. the registrar.
b. the Office of Waste Management.
c. Rathje and Psihoyos.
d. the Office of Sustainability.
10. The average person generates over ___________ pounds of trash every day and about ___________
tons of solid waste per year.
a. 4; 1.5
b. 1.5; 4
c. 14; 15
d. 15; 14
11. Recycling ____________ aluminum can saves enough energy to listen to a full album on your iPod.
a. ten
b. twenty
c. five
d. one
12. Americans throw away 25,000,000 plastic bottles every __________________.
a. second
b. minute
c. hour
d. day
13. Monofilament fishing line takes ___________ years to decompose.
a. 6
b. 60
c. 600
d. 6000
12. Pests
1. Do you think that humans can prevent pests from becoming resistant to pesticides or delay it in some
manner? Explain your reasoning.
2. Pests that invade crops can be controlled by changing the management of the fields. Describe two
ways in which you would implement this system if you were a farmer.
3. Is biological control safe? Describe two things scientists can do to maximize the chances that
biological control will not cause damage to other organisms and the ecosystem.
4. In your opinion, what is the most damaging type of pest? Be sure to explain your reasoning
completely.
5. Can you envision a pest that could be helpful? Describe your new life form.
Multiple Choice
1. A pest is any organism that
a. spreads disease.
b. interferes with human activity.
c. competes with humans.
d. All of these.
2. According to proponents of pesticides, these chemicals can
a. work faster than alternative controls.
b. cost money and lives.
c. kill insects that transmit disease.
d. All of these.
e. Only A and C.
3. The ideal pesticide would
a. kill only the target pest.
b. not be persistent
c. allow the development of genetic resistance.
d. be of equal value to the damage the pest would have caused.
4. In biological magnification,
a. organisms in the lower trophic levels accumulate lethal doses of toxins.
b. the organisms at the upper end of the food chain receive lower doses than those below.
c. organisms at higher trophic levels have more concentrated levels of toxic substances.
d. the environment has higher concentrations of toxins than organisms in the food chain.
5. Pesticides are potentially linked to
a. childhood brain cancer.
b. immune system disorders.
c. endocrine system disorders.
d. All of these.
6. Which of the following would be least effective in trying to reduce insect damage?
a. rotating crops
b. delaying planting
c. planting monoculture
d. planting barrier hedges around agricultural fields
7. Biological control, or the use of another organism to control a pest,
a. costs more than pesticides to use.
b. is not target specific.
c. is often self-perpetuating once the control organism is established.
d. has effects only on animals and is almost totally ineffective against weedy plants.
e. Both B and C are true.
13. Invasive Species
1. Define invasive species.
2. Discuss one of the invasive species from the Invasive Species website (www.invasive.org) not found
in the lecture. Be sure to state where it began its invasion. Can it be eliminated, permanently or
temporarily? Why is it invasive? Does it harm something? Describe as much information as you can
about this species. Be sure to correctly state the scientific name of the species. Must be one side of one
page double spaced using 12 point Times New Roman font.
3. One purpose of the Refuge Ecology Protection, Assistance, and Immediate Response Act is: “To
protect, enhance, restore, and manage a diversity of habitats for native fish and wildlife resources within
the National Wildlife Refuge System through control of harmful nonnative species.” If you were a forest
ranger in the National Wildlife Refuge System, how would you go about implementing this law?
Multiple Choice
1. It is important to remove invasive species from invaded habitats in order to protect the habitat from
other invasive species.
a. True
b. False
2. The IUCN defines an invasive species as
a. an introduced species.
b. a non-indigenous species.
c. a species that causes damage.
d. a non-native species.
3. What do most of the invasive species covered in lecture have in common?
a. They are all from the U.S.
b. They are all from outside the U.S.
c. They are all insects or mollusks.
d. They are all impossible to remove from the invaded ecosystem.
4. According to the Ballast Water Treatment Act of 2008 HR 2423
a. All ships must refrain from taking on ballast water from US waters.
b. All ships must refrain from dumping ballast water in US waters.
c. All ships must treat ballast water before dumping it in US waters.
d. All ships must not treat ballast water before dumping it in US waters.
5. The purpose of the Refuge Ecology Protection, Assistance, and Immediate Response Act HR 767 is
a. to protect, enhance, restore, and manage a diversity of habitats for native fish and wildlife
resources within the National Wildlife Refuge System through control of harmful nonnative
species.
b. to protect the diversity of habitats for native fish and wildlife resources within the National
Wildlife Refuge System through control of harmful nonnative species.
c. to enhance the diversity of habitats for native fish and wildlife resources within the National
Wildlife Refuge System through control of harmful nonnative species.
d. to restore and manage the diversity of habitats for native fish and wildlife resources within the
National Wildlife Refuge System through control of harmful nonnative species.
6. All non-native or exotic plants are invasive species.
a. True
b. False
7. Invasive plants are characterized by:
a. fast growth rates.
b. high fruit production.
c. rapid spread.
d. All of the above.
8. Invasive plant species would be expected to
a. devote a higher-than-average allocation of resources to reproduction.
b. have higher-than-average concentrations of protective compounds.
c. be susceptible to a greater-than-average number of herbivores.
d. Both a and b.
9. Invasive plant and animal species
a. are detrimental because they often out-compete native species for resources.
b. do not pose any threat to native species so long as they are adapted to the area.
c. generally have low growth rates.
d. generally provide adaptive disease-inhibiting properties to native plants.
e. are usually restricted to small areas.
14. Conservation and Management of Wild Species
Short Answer
1. Why are small populations more threatened with extinction?
2. What should the two main aims of conservation be? Explain your reasoning.
3. If an area of an uncommon type of vegetation is reduced to small separated patches, how will this
affect the population of animals living there? Would there be a difference in the reaction of the animals if
that patch was a more common type of vegetation? How?
4. What features of animal life control the amount of space they need to survive? Describe two. Why
can an animal the size of a raccoon survive so well in a city? Do humans change the amount of space
animals need to survive? How?
5. Some ecologists think that habitat corridors are very important and some think that animals can
function just as well without them. As usual, both of these opinions are likely true. Explain how both can
be true at the same time.
6. Can humans alter conditions in such a way as to promote high diversity? How would you achieve this
aim?
7. Describe the creation from the beginning through the present of the Shenandoah National Park. Be
complete.
8. Describe how the Endangered Species Act works and what is contained within the document.
Multiple Choice
1. A species whose role is absolutely vital for the survival of many other species in an ecosystem is
called a(n) ____________________ species.
a. kingpin
b. keystone
c. invaluable
d. critical
2. The single largest reason for the current decline in biodiversity is
a. pollution
b. alteration of habitats.
c. poaching.
d. introduction of exotic species.
e. There is no single reason. All of the above are true.
3. The value of a natural species may be
a. recreational and aesthetic.
b. as a source for medicine.
c. as a source for agriculture.
d. commercial.
e. All of these.
4. Mathematical models indicate that organisms that are the most vulnerable to habitat loss are
a. herbivores.
b. top carnivores.
c. decomposers.
d. bacteria.
5. What is an exotic species?
a. A type of zoo animal.
b. A species that stays in really nice locations.
c. A species introduced to an area from some other place.
d. Something that is always very dangerous to the environment.
6. The Endangered Species Act (ESA) was passed in
a. 1963
b. 1973
c. 1983
d. 1993
7. Which of the following species were driven to extinction by human activities since 1700?
a. manatees, passenger pigeons, dodos
b. sharks, manatees, passenger pigeons
c. Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeons, dinosaurs
d. Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeons, dodos
8. Small populations of species are more likely to
a. be below critical population density.
b. be vulnerable to stochastic processes.
c. be more likely to survive in a well-connected metapopulation.
d. All of the above.
9. In a typical forest, animals all live in the same levels of the canopy and eat the same food. This brings
about niche specialization.
a. True
b. False
10. All of the following would make a species more prone to extinction except
a. low population density.
b. small body size.
c. specialized niche.
d. low reproductive rate.
11. The ESA was designed to preserve the
a. recreational, and scientific value to our Nation and its people.
b. aesthetic, ecological, and scientific value to our Nation and its people.
c. aesthetic, ecological, educational, recreational, and scientific value to the World and its people.
d. aesthetic, ecological, educational, recreational, and scientific value to our Nation and its
people.
12. The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) was passed in
a. 1942
b. 1952
c. 1962
d. 1972
13. Which of the following species were already extinct by the time the ESA was passed?
a. Steller’s sea cow and the Carolina parakeet
b. The Ivory billed woodpecker and the Carolina Parakeet
c. The blue pike and the Carolina parakeet
d. Steller’s sea cow and the blue pike
14. The ESA is administered by
a. NMFS
b. FWS
c. The states
d. Both A and B.
e. Both B and C.
15. One thing the ESA requires is that all listed species have
a. at least 500 members in the population.
b. at least 50 members in the population.
c. a scientist dedicated to studying the population.
d. a recovery plan.
16. The Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)
is an international treaty enacted in
a. 1963
b. 1973
c. 1983
d. 1993
17. The IUCN maintains
a. the Endangered Species Lists.
b. the Red Lists.
c. the Blue Lists.
d. Appendix 1 and 2.
18. The MMPA was originally designed to
a., replenish stocks, increase knowledge of stocks and to protect resources of great international
significance.
b. protect stocks, and to protect resources of great international significance.
c. protect stocks, keep stocks from falling below OSP, replenish stocks, increase knowledge of
stocks and to protect resources of great international significance.
d. protect stocks, keep stocks from falling below OSP, and replenish stocks.
19. Which of the following initiatives would not be included in modern conservation biology’s efforts to
preserve biodiversity?
a. Preserving the economic value gained from commercial fisheries.
b. Protecting a species of butterfly for its intrinsic beauty.
c. Protecting a woody shrub because of its medicinal applications.
d. Protecting a sea otter because the community is more stable with that species present.
e.All of the above would be efforts of modern conservation biology.
20. The purpose of the IUCN is to
a. increase climate change, achieve sustainable energy, improve human well-being and build a
green economy.
b. tackle climate change, eliminate sustainable energy, improve human well-being and build a
green economy.
c. tackle climate change, achieve sustainable energy, improve human well-being and build a
better economy.
d. tackle climate change, achieve sustainable energy, improve human well-being and build a
green economy.
21. The CITES treaty produced the
a. Red Lists.
b. Blue Lists
c. three Appendices (I, II and III).
d. Endangered Species Lists.
15. Human-Wildlife Conflicts
1. Write the definition of HWC that you think best summarizes the idea. Defend your idea as the BEST
answer based on what you learned in class.
2. Describe at least five reasons why HWC occurs.
3. Describe the complete problems and solutions associated with one of the animals we discussed in class.
4. Even though most HWC surrounds terrestrial animals, there is a great deal of conflict between
manatees and certain groups of humans in Florida. Make a case to defend the manatees and the case one
of the human groups would make to remove the manatees. Be sure to comment on which side you think
is more correct. I will not be biased. So choose the side you most associate with.
5. What can be done to accommodate both the elephants in Africa and the humans struggling to survive
there? State and defend three ideas.
6. We covered only a few of the animals that are in conflict with humans. What other animals are
involved in HWC? Describe the biology and the conflict surrounding your animal.
Multiple Choice
1. HWC is escalating worldwide because of
a. declining human population.
b. land use transformation
c. habitat loss, degradation, fragmentation.
d. ecotravel and declining access to nature reserves.
e. Both B and C are correct.
2. When working on problems of HWC, it is important to
a. remove all of the animals causing issues.
b. fence animals into an area where they will not cause problems for humans.
c. keep humans completely out of animal territories.
d. consider an interdisciplinary approach to conflict that incorporate as much information
as possible about the animals, but also takes into account the human dimension.
3. The best strategy to control elephants in Africa is
a. transport problem animals to another area.
b. fence the area with something elephants do not like, chili peppers for instance.
c. keep humans out of elephant territory.
d. ignore the problem.
4. What is the biggest problem with cormorants in Israel?
a. Humans do not like them.
b. They are making a mess of the areas by with excess defecation.
c. They eat commercially important fish.
d. They migrate into houses in the area.
5. Coyotes have been present in __________________ since ___________________.
a. Rock Creek Park, 2004
b. Mason Neck Park, 2004
c. Burke Lake Park, 2005
d. Quantico Park, 2006
6. Coyotes are important in the Washington D.C. ecosystem because
a. they are top carnivores and keep some pest animals under control.
b. they are pests and must be kept under control.
c. they are herbivores and keep weeds under control.
d. they have been in the ecosystem for many years and they cause it to work correctly.
7. Manatees evolved from __________________ footed animals ______ years ago.
a. four, 50 million
b. four, 60 million
c. two, 50 million
d. two, 60 million
8. Sirenians, in general, are very unusual in many ways. One of the most strange is
a. they evolved from whales.
b. they have axillary (under arm) nipples.
c. they have a broad flat tail to help them swim more rapidly.
d. there were once many different Sirenians inhabiting the warm waters of the Earth.
9. Steller’s sea cows were found on two islands in the north Pacific in ________ by Georg Steller and
they were hunted to extinction by Russian fur hunters by ________.
a. 1941, 1968
b. 1841, 1868
c. 1741, 1768
d. 1641, 1648
10. The largest human induced threat to manatees in Florida is
a. flood gates.
b. death of very young animals.
c. undetermined.
d. watercraft.
11. Cold stress is very bad for manatees because
a. Causes weight loss, skin lesions, gastrointestinal disorders, internal abscesses and
secondary infections.
b. It is little understood.
c. Some animals suffer a mild version after severe weather.
d. It is worse for smaller, younger and less experienced animals.
e. All of the above.
12. Manatees in Florida are protected by
a. Florida State law (Ch. 4208.94) (1893)
b. Endangered Species Act (1973)
c. Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972)
d. Only A and B.
e. The laws listed in A, B, and C.
16. Predator Control
1. Are predators important to the ecosystem? Why or why not?
2. Describe a typical predator-prey relationship. Draw a graph showing this type of relationship between
a rabbit and a lynx. Is this what actually happens between these organisms? Why or why not?
3. Describe the history of predator management in the US.
4. Describe predator management strategies for coyotes, cougars, wolves or bears in the US (choose
one). What policy do wildlife managers usually have for management of predators in reserves?
5. Usually when ecologists talk about predators, they mean large mammals. Are there other kinds of
predators that need to be controlled? Think about this one. State and explain your opinion.
Multiple Choice
1. _____ populations are at least partially determined by their food supplies, not just their ____.
a. prey, predator
b. predator, prey
c. neither
d. both
2. ____ populations respond to the entire community of ____, not just a single species.
a. prey, predator
b. predator, prey
c. neither
d. both
3. ____ populations are affected by factors other than just the ____ population density.
a. prey, predator
b. predator, prey
c. neither
d. both
4. Saving predators is really a bad idea since they provide no helpful effect to the environment.
a. true
b. false
c. maybe
d. I don’t know.
5. Opinions about predators stem from European settlers. They thought predators were
a. competitors with humans for game.
b. threats to human safety.
c. threats to the health of livestock.
d. werewolves.
e. All of the above.
6. In 1931 the Animal Damage Control Act authorized the Secretary of Agriculture to ___ predators.
(Remember this is law, you must use the exact wording.)
a. eliminate
b. eradicate
c. exterminate
d. eat
7. The Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration act was passed in
a. 1937
b. 1947
c. 1957
d. 1967
8. By January 2010, the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration act had raised _______ dollars.
a. 2 hundred
b. 2 thousand
c. 2 million
d. 2 billion
9. Bounties cost the state of North Dakota ____ dollars between 1897 and 1961.
a. 2.2 hundred
b. 2.2 thousand
c. 2.2 million
d. 2.2 billion
10. The main action of the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration act was to create
a. a ban on hunting predators.
b. a tax on hunting equipment.
c. a fee for each predator killed.
d. a tax on each predator killed.
11. Bounties on predators go back to _____ in _______ to control _____.
a. 1630, Massachusetts, wolves
b. 1630, Massachusetts, coyotes
c. 1830, Massachusetts, wolves
d. 1830, Massachusetts, coyotes
12. Until 1961, North Dakota had bounties on
a. wolf, rattlesnake, magpie, dogs, fox and coyote
b. wolf, rattlesnake, magpie, gopher, fox and coyote.
c. wolf, rattlesnake, magpie, gopher, fox and manatees.
d. wolf, rattlesnake, fox and coyote.
13. Bounties succeed in reducing predator populations on a large scale over a long period of time.
a. TRUE
b. FALSE
14. Bounties encourage fraud and cheating in presenting animals for payment. For instance, people
collecting bounties on animals taken in other states or out of the intended area.
a. TRUE
b. FALSE
BIOL/EVPP 377: Applied Ecology
Forests remove
carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and
add oxygen.
Forests are managed
on a sustainableyield multiple-use
basis but return is
low.
Commercial agriculture is responsible for 70%
of tropical deforestation.
The food producer Cargill has pledges to
halve Amazonian deforestation by 2020 and
eliminate it by 2030.
Cargill is the producer of many products,
including cattle, soy beans, palm oil, cocoa
and sugar. They do state that 60% of their
palm oil production is already sustainable.
Deciduous forest to desert (US)
Global forest transitions
Zonation: spatial change in species composition,
community structure and function.
Succession: change in species composition,
community structure and function over time at a
given location.
Structure: the 3-dimensional vertical
stratification of vegetation at one point in both
space and time.
Landscape ecology: the study of the causes and
consequences of spatial patterns in the
landscape.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Landscape is a mosaic.
Corridors influence organism
movement.
Fragmentation creates patches.
Disturbance created heterogeneity.
Disturbances vary.
Forest Boundary Habitat
Border : place where one patch meets another
Boundary: two edges plus the border
Tropical rain forests are the most diverse
biomes. What factors contribute to this
diversity?
◦ Warm moist stable climate providing growing
conditions for plants year-round. Which in turn
provides diverse habitats for other species.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
17
The northern coniferous forest, or taiga, is
the largest terrestrial biome on Earth
◦ The taiga is characterized by long, cold winters and
short, wet summers
19
Coniferous forests fall into three broad classes according
to the growth form that influences their structure:
1.
2.
3.
Pines with straight, cylindrical trunks, whorled spreading
branches, and a crown density that varies from dense to open
thin crowns.
Examples: red (1) and lodgepole pine (2)
Spire-shaped evergreens with a more or less tall pyramidal open
crown, gradually tapering trunks, and whorled, horizontal
branches.
Examples: Douglas-fir (3) and cedar (4)
Deciduous conifers have pyramidal, open crowns and shed their
needles annually.
Examples: larch (5) and bald cypress (6)
Vertical stratification in many coniferous forests is not well
developed.
Forest management:
◦ manipulation of vegetation
◦ done to achieve specific goals
◦ requires a long term investment
Classic forestry:
◦ reproduce valuable forest types
◦ artificially create natural-type disturbances
Rates of return are low.
Objectives of forest management include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
regeneration
timber production
improve wildlife habitat
improve forest composition and structure
minimize loss
resistance to insects and diseases
resistance to catastrophic fire
Silviculture: tree farming
Non-timber Forest Products
1. Foods: mushrooms, honey, rubber/gums, nuts,
fruits
2. Fodder for animals
3. Resins
4. Food Additives: spice/herb, flavors
5. Fiber: furniture, construction, clothing
6. Fragrance
7. Ornamental pods or seeds
8. Oils
Tools:
◦ cutting or
mechanical harvest
◦ prescribed fire
◦ herbicides
Even-aged stands
are used to create
forests of a single
species.
Even-aged stands
can be created by:
◦ clear-cutting
method
◦ shelterwood method
◦ seed tree method
Even-aged stands
can be created by:
◦ clear-cutting
method
◦ shelterwood method
◦ seed tree method
Even-aged stands
can be created by:
◦ clear-cutting
method
◦ shelterwood method
◦ seed tree method
Uneven-aged stands: used to manage
shade tolerant species
1.
2.
3.
4.
Catastrophic wildfire
Fragmentation
Urbanization
Insects and disease
National Fire Activity
Initial attack activity:
Weekly Total
Light (535 new
New large fires:
Large fires contained:
Uncontained large fires:
Area Command Teams committed:
NIMOs committed:
Type 1 IMTs committed:
Type 2 IMTs committed:
5 (*)
6
** 1
0
0
0
0
fires)
** Uncontained large fires include only fires being
managed under a full suppression strategy.
Fires in Colorado
last summer did
enormous amounts
of damage to local
people and their
belongings.
Engine block for a
Motor Home.
Colorado Fires
Insect Damage
Forest Lands Most at Risk
to Insects and Diseases Over
The Next 15 Years
Landscape or habitat
fragmentation
Parcelization
Urbanization (urban
sprawl)
Trend is towards private ownership of forest
lots.
Every 2 years three million acres of land are
split up into 100 acre plots.
People over 65 hold 93 million acres that will
likely be split up by 2010.
By then 38% of land will be in lots smaller
than 100 acres.
Storage capacity of plants and other material
or organisms to bind carbon and eliminate it
from the atmosphere.
Forests add oxygen to the atmosphere and
remove carbon dioxide.
Major areas of sequestration:
◦ plankton
◦ boreal forest
Oceanic plankton
◦ Largest carbon sink.
◦ Done by organisms with
calcium or silica
carbonate skeletons.
◦ Most is consumed by
zooplankton.
◦ Remainder sinks into
deep ocean currents and
can remain there for
hundreds of years.
Boreal forests
◦ Amount varies by soil and tree
type, by climate and by forest
management practices.
◦ Boreal forests sequester the
most carbon.
◦ Can be measured by monitoring
tree size and changes in
biomass.
Introduction of iron to
the photic zone to
cause phytoplankton to
bloom.
Carbon is then trapped
in the marine food
chain.
Whales actually eat this
and retain carbon
in…poo.
Learn all you can!
Plant
trees?
Carpool?
Drive a hybrid
Recycle
Research carbon
sequestration in a
Master’s program?
http://www.treebenefits.com/calculator/
Management of Urban Areas
List and describe at least five problems
associated with urbanization
The movement of housing and shopping
areas into areas that are more rural is
known as urban sprawl.
Problems associated with urbanization
include:
Increased rate and severity of flooding
Increased erosion of stream banks and bottoms
Increased sedimentation
Increased chemical pollution
Altered biological populations
Degradation of riparian habitat
Increased stream temperatures
Increasing loadings of fecal coliform
Runoff
Pollution
Differences in hydrology after
development
What is Low Impact Development
and how is it useful?
Design each
development site to
protect, or restore,
the natural hydrology
of the site so that the
overall integrity of the
watershed is
protected. This is done
by creating a
hydrologically
functional landscape.
Features of a low impact development site.
Basic LID Principles
1.
Conserve natural areas.
2.
Minimize development impacts.
3.
Maintain site runoff rate.
4.
Use integrated management practices.
5.
Implement pollution prevention, proper
maintenance and public education
programs.
LID Applications
Ecosystem protection
Urban runoff/storm water control
New and existing development
Combined sewer overflow abatement
Flow mitigation
Pollutant removal
Aquifer recharge
Weymouth, Massachusetts
Benefits to urban areas from low
impact development
Storm water management
Reduce urban heat island impacts/energy
consumption
Minimize waste
Reduce volume of runoff
Innovative techniques (green roof, permeable pavers, etc.)
Increase material durability and lifetime
Use recycled materials
Provide urban habitat
Reduce air pollution
Aesthetically pleasing
Conserve Natural Areas
Typical Subdivision
Conservation of
drainages, trees &
vegetation
Land use planning
Watershed planning
Habitat conservation
plans
Stream & wetland
buffers
Comparing LID and Conventional
Development
Conventional
Development
LID Subdivision
Differences in Hydrology after
Development
Conventional
Immediate Discharge
Higher Peak Flows
Flashy Hydrology
LID Site
Delay in Discharge
Reduced Peak Discharge
Prolonged Groundwater
Flow
Integrated Management Practices
Integrated
Management
Practices, or
IMPs, are smallscale stormwater
management
controls that are
strategically
distributed
throughout the
site.
Cincinnati Zoo Water Management
Integrated Management Practices
Small-scale
stormwater
controls.
Distributed
throughout site .
Maintain flow
patterns, filter
pollutants and recreate or maintain
hydrology.
Common Integrated Management
Practices
Bioretention
Open Swales
Permeable
and Porous Pavements
Green Roofs and
Planter Boxes
Disconnectivity
Sand Filters
Inlet Retrofits
LID Site
Conservation
Porous
Pavement
Reduced
Imperviousness
Green Roof
Amended
Soils
Rain
Gardens
Create a Hydrologically Functional Lot
Open
Drainage
Rain
Barrel
Bioretention
Definition:
Biological removal of contaminants or
nutrients as fluid passes through a media
or a biological system
Benefits:
Pollutant removal
Runoff volume and peak flow reduction
Ground water recharge
$ Can be incorporated into landscape plans
$ Less land area required for construction
$ Aesthetic benefits
Bioretention Example
Parking lot
bioretention islands
Reduces runoff volume
Filters/infiltrates runoff
Recharges ground
water
Cheaper utility costs
and increased
resource efficiency
Aesthetics
Bioretention area
Bioinfiltration Traffic Island Yearly
Runoff
Post Construction
– 15.47”
After Traffic Island
– 8.05”
Increased Infiltration – 7.42”
But what about quality and longevity?
Burnville, Minnesota
A community
with rain gardens
contributed 80%
less runoff to
Crystal Lake than
a similar
community
without rain
gardens.
Scuppers into Stormwater Planter
Disconnectivity
Definition: disconnection of impervious surface areas and
redirection of storm water to vegetated areas.
Rain Gardens in Masonvale
Definition: a depression in the ground that allows rain to flow
into that area. This helps get ground water to infiltrate the
ground and recharge aquifers.
Water Conservation in Barrels,
Cisterns and Storage Tanks
Porous Concrete
Villanova University
Porous Pavement at Masonvale
Conventional
Construction Cost Comparison
Conventional
Low Impact
Grading/Roads
$569,698
$426,575
Storm Drains
$225,721
$132,558
SWM Pond/Fees
$260,858
$ 10,530
—
$175,000
$1,086,277
$744,663
Unit Cost
$14,679
$9,193
Lot Yield
74
81
Bioretention/Micro
Total
Amherst and Concord, Massachusetts
Clustered housing developments with
protected open space appreciated at a higher
rate (22% vs. 19.5%) than conventionally
designed subdivisions, despite the fact that lot
sizes in the clustered developments were
substantially smaller.
Green Roofs
Green Roofs
Green Roof in Sweden (Photo by Marie-Elisabeth Tondje)
Benefits obtained from buildings
that have a green roof installed
Stormwater
Reduce runoff volumes
Reduce pollutant loadings
Reduce energy consumption
Reduce urban heat island
impacts
Decrease sound
Minimize waste by increasing
roof durability
Benefits of Green Walls
Benefits include:
Reduction of
heating and cooling
costs.
Reduction of heat
island effect.
Evapotranspiration
of moisture into the
wider environment.
Benefits of Green Walls
Benefits include:
Air purification of indoor toxic chemicals that
are common in modern buildings including
VOCs, CO,TCE, benzene, toluene, xylene and
formaldehyde.
Quieter buildings and streets.
Ecological habitat for pollinating insects, song
birds and other wildlife.
Improvement of human comfort and stress by
putting foliage and flowers into the field of
vision.
Benefits of Green Walls
Benefits include:
Hydroponic vertical
gardens can use
minimal water and
nutrient input.
Absorption of storm
water, reducing runoff loads on pumping
and treatment
systems.
Benefits of Green Walls
Maintaining Pre-development
Hydrology
From Penn State Green Roof Research Center
Costs and Benefits
Green Roofs cost
between $9 and $13
dollars more per
square foot than
traditional roofs.
Green Roofs will last
1½ to 3 times longer
than traditional roofs.
Benefits offered will
depend upon type of
Green Roof installed.
Describe the concept of vertical
farming
Definition:
vertical multilevel
structure that grows
food in order to reduce
dependence on
transported food
Eighty percent of
people will live in
cities by 2050.
Vertical Farming Benefits
Year round production
of food.
Produce is all organic.
No crop failure.
Restores farms to
natural ecosystem.
Reduces dependence
on petroleum for food
transportation.
Vertical Farming Benefits
Vertical Farming a Reality!
“With an emphasis on efficiency Sky Green made sure that the
water was recycled, eventually being used to water the
vegetables themselves. Just 60W of power – just enough for a
lightbulb – is needed to operate one tower per day. The
company that builds the system, Singapore-based Sky Green,
claims that the artificial system is 5 to 10 times more
productive than traditional farms.”
/
Vertical Farming a Reality!
“With an emphasis on efficiency
Sky Green made sure that the
water was recycled, eventually
being used to water the
vegetables themselves. Just
60W of power – just enough for
a lightbulb – is needed to
operate one tower per day. The
company that builds the
system, Singapore-based Sky
Green, claims that the artificial
system is 5 to 10 times more
productive than traditional
farms.”
/
Mason Inn LEED Certified
George Mason
University recently
announced that The
Mason Inn Conference
Center and Hotel has
been awarded LEED
Gold certification by
the U.S. Green
Building Council
(USGBC) and verified
by the Green Building
Certification Institute
(GBCI).
What LEED Measures
Sustainable Sites
Water Efficiency
Site selection and development are important
components of a building’s sustainability.
Buildings are major users of our potable water
supply.
Energy & Atmosphere
According to the U.S. Department of Energy,
buildings use 39% of the energy and 74% of
the electricity produced each year in the
United States.
What LEED Measures
Materials & Resources
During both the construction and operations
phases, buildings generate a lot of waste and
use large quantities of materials and
resources.
Indoor Environmental Quality
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
estimates that Americans spend about 90% of
their day indoors, where the air quality can be
significantly worse than outside.
What LEED Measures
Locations & Linkages
The LEED for Homes rating system recognizes
that much of a home’s impact on the
environment comes from where it is located
and how it fits into its community.
Awareness & Education
The LEED for Homes rating system
acknowledges that a home is only truly green
if the people who live in it use its green
features to maximum effect.
What LEED Measures
Innovation in Design
The Innovation in Design category provides bonus points
for projects that use innovative technologies and
strategies to improve a building’s performance well
beyond what is required by other LEED credits, or to
account for green building considerations that are not
specifically addressed elsewhere in LEED.
Regional Priority
USGBC’s regional councils, chapters and affiliates have
identified the most important local environmental
concerns, and six LEED credits addressing these local
priorities have been selected for each region of the
country.
Innovative Energy
Innovative Energy
2/21/2015: Portland, OR makes toilet energy!
Solar Shingles
“Each cell converts
energy from light into
electricity. Therefore,
these shingles create
electricity by absorbing
photons and releasing
electrons. The more
solar cells that are
linked together in a
system, the greater
volume of energy they
can capture and
produce.”
http://esolarshingles.net/
France decrees new rooftops must be
covered in plants or solar panels (3/19/15)
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/20/france-decrees-new-rooftops-must-be-covered-in-plants-or-solar-panels
Questions?
Generalized PCBs
Pollution and Recycling
Definition of a Pollutant
Any substance that
is potentially harmful
to organisms in the
environment.
The Top 10 Engineering Designs to
Clean Up Plastics In the Oceans
The design relies
upon driving winds
through massive
propellers on top of
the ship to
turn macrocentrifuge
devices underneath
the hull. These
devices the spin
microplastics out of
the top layers of
ocean.
http://deepseanews.com/2014/07/the-top-10-engineering-designs-to-clean-up-plastics-in-the-oceans-you-wont-believe-what-wefound/
See the rest here.
In the United States…
EPA Toxic Release
Inventory:
required
650 different pollutants
2001, the total weight
of chemicals released
into the environment
was 1.4 billion
pounds!
2014: 3.8 billion!!!!!
Why is minimizing exposure to
toxics important?
Toxic chemicals can cause acute and
chronic effects in humans, animals and
plants including:
Reproductive failure
Stunting of growth
Growth abnormalities
Metabolic interference
Cancer
Death
Less Than 1% Of Sweden’s Trash
Ends Up In Landfills
Swedish people produce about the same amount of waste per year as
other Europeans but, remarkably, less than 1% of household trash ends
up in landfills (Huffington Post 2014).
Mercury
Poisoning in
the Faeroe Islands
Toxic chemicals have two main
properties toxicity and hazard.
Toxicity: the ability of a substance to
produce an unwanted effect when the
chemical has reached a sufficient
concentration at a certain site in the body.
Hazard: the probability that this
concentration in the body will occur.
Carcinogens: cause cancer.
Teratogens: cause defects in fetus development.
Arsenic
Benzene
Lead
Mercury
Hormone Mimics:
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Arsenic, Mercury and Lead Poisoning
Mercury
Arsenic
Lead
Realities
Less
severe
examples in
humans are
reasonably
common from
chronic exposure.
Extreme
concentrations in
the environment
are not
uncommon.
The amount present is crucial!
Minute amounts of many chemicals are not
harmful.
Very minute amounts of other chemicals are very
harmful.
What about Fairfax County polluters?
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
Facility
Exxon Mobil Corp. Newington Terminal
Newington
Motiva Springfield Terminal
Lorton
Crown Central Petroleum Corp.
Newington
Sicpa Securink Corp.
Springfield
Virginia Concrete Edsall Road Plant
Springfield
World Wide Automotive
Chantilly
Pounds
16,893
12,830
1,506
250
197
5
What chemicals are in the area?
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Chemical Name
Methyl Tert-butyl Ether
N-hexane
Toluene
Xylene (Mixed Isomers)
Benzene
Ethylbenzene
Glycol Ethers
Nitrate Compounds
1,2,4-trimethylbenzene
Copper
Pounds
22,108
3,449
2,587
1,555
1,073
295
250
197
162
5
Do Tests!
EPA
conducts simple,
standardized tests on
selected species.
EPA’s statutory
authority to regulate
chemicals is
somewhat limited.
Testing
For aquatic
invertebrates, fish and
amphibians, uptake is
via the gaseous
exchange surfaces.
For terrestrial
invertebrates, reptiles,
birds and mammals,
uptake is via ingested
food and water.
Define the terms LC50 and LD50
Mortality
(Lethal Dose = LD)
aquatic
LC50 :
the concentration that is lethal (fatal)
to 50% of the test individuals.
terrestrial
LD50 :
the dose that is lethal (fatal) to 50%
of the test individuals.
both
Higher
toxicity means lower LC50 and LD50
How long are tests run?
Depends on:
Rate of uptake for the chemical.
Whether testing for acute or chronic effects
The chronic effective concentration is always lower
than the acute effective concentration.
Chronic EC50 generally = acute EC50
1.48
What species to test?
Select a species that is very sensitive to
pollutants.
Wide range of sensitivities to one chemical
among species.
Wide range of sensitivities in one species
among different chemicals.
Select a species that is crucial in the
ecosystem.
Large numbers of individuals are needed, and
many species are difficult to culture in the lab.
So what species are really tested?
Brine shrimp (Artemia) for marine
systems.
Cladoceran (Daphnia) for freshwater
systems.
Fathead minnow (Pimephales) as a
vertebrate for freshwater systems.
Mice, rats, rabbits…
Pollutant Effects in the Field
Often
varies with
conditions.
May cause subtle
behavioral changes
before any measurable
physiological changes.
Pollutant Effects in the Field
Mixtures
of
pollutants are
common.
Sometimes the
effect is often
merely additive.
But sometimes the
effect is
multiplicative.
ammonia, cyanide
and heavy metals …
Pollutant Effects in the Field
Effects
term.
may be long
Effect of DDT on eggs.
Peregrine falcon
Pollutant Absorption
Aquatic species take up and give up
pollutants over extensive respiratory
surfaces.
If environmental concentration is
constant, an equilibrium will probably
develop.
The equilibrium concentration may be
different in each species and not be the
same as that of the environment.
Define bioconcentration,
bioaccumulation and biomagnification
and give an example of each
Bioaccumulation: an organism
accumulates a pollutant at a greater rate
over time than it can eliminate it.
DDT, dieldrin
Bioconcentration: concentrating of a
pollutant in particular parts of the organism.
fat deposits, liver
Biomagnification: a pollutant has an
additive property as it is passed from one
trophic level to the next.
Top level predators (raptors, predatory
mammals) are more vulnerable.
How are pollutants absorbed by
terrestrial plants?
Most occurs through roots from soil.
Cu, Zn, As (similar to P), Cs (similar to K)
Some occurs through leaf surfaces.
gaseous and air-borne pollutants
Terrestrial Animal Absorption
Most occurs from food or water via gut.
If no degradation or elimination, then
sequestering occurs and biomagnification
at higher trophic levels is possible.
Removing Pollutants
Combustion
Burial
Bioremediation
Bioremediation
The use of organisms to detoxify a
pollutant.
1.
Secondary wastewater treatment
2.
Aerobic breakdown of nontoxic organic matter by
microbes.
Heavy metals
Bacterial conversion of water soluble sulfates into
precipitates of metallic sulfides in anaerobic
conditions.
CuSO4 to CuS, PbSO4 to PbS, ZnSO4 to ZnS
Use waste microbial biomass or straw to absorb
metal ions.
How about oil?
Bioremediation
Bioremediation
of toxic organic
pollutants found in oil spills:
Ability of microbes to degrade varies
with the structure of pollutant molecule
Chlorine
Benzene
Rising Concern
Release
of pharmaceuticals in human
waste and excretory products.
Drugs, hormones, steroids, perfumes
Define the term endocrine disruptor
and give at least four examples
Definition:
A
chemical that
interferes with
endocrine system.
Examples:
PAHs
Dioxins
PCBs
Hormones
The Endocrine
System
Atrazine
Frogs,
and other
amphibians, are
sensitive to toxics
because of uptake via
their skin.
Atrazine has been
shown to interfere
with the sexual
development of frogs.
Case Studies
We are going to look at two case studies:
Mercury
PAHs from sealant in parking lots
Poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (aerosols)
Mercury
Enters the
environment from:
Discharge from coal
fired power facilities
and industry and
subsequent
deposition.
Illegally dumped
mercury devices.
Broken mercury
devices.
http://www.ccfhr.noaa.gov/images/pollution/mercury/atmospheric_hg.png
Mercury – Politically Hot!
Under the Clean Skies Initiative, power
plants are allowed to delay compliance with
the Clean Air Act.
Change is expensive.
Mercury isn’t a top priority threat.
Environmentalists oppose such changes.
Industry must make changes now.
Mercury concentrations bioaccumulate and biomagnify.
Once mercury is emitted, it is irreversible on a human time
scale.
This is a top priority.
Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
PAHs can decompose by reacting with
sunlight and other chemicals in the air
over a reasonably short period of time.
Most PAHs do not dissolve easily in water.
Microorganisms can break down PAHs in
soil or water over a more extended period
of time than when exposed to the
atmosphere.
Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
Industry, direct
discharge, nonpoint sources.
A new study
(Mahler et al.
2005) shows that
a major contributor
of PAHs is from
Parking Lot
Sealcoat.
The Austin Study
Particles in runoff from sealcoat had PAH
concentrations 65 times higher than
unsealed lots.
In 4 watersheds studied, sealant accounted
for a majority of PAH loadings.
Implications
The
city of
Austin moved to
ban all tar based
PAHs.
Other cities
might follow
suit.
Recycling Definition
According to Merriam-Webster:
to pass again through a series of changes or
treatments: as
a : to process (as liquid body waste, glass, or
cans) in order to regain material for human use
b : recover
c : to reuse or make (a substance) available for
reuse for biological activities through natural
processes of biochemical degradation or
modification
Recycling in Fairfax County
http://www.fairfaxcounty.gov/dpwes/trash/dispaccept-index.htm
Recycling at George Mason
http://green.gmu.edu/campussustainability/wasteminandrecycling.html
Recycling
Of course, it takes varying amounts of
time for things to break down in the
environment.
Some things that SHOULD break down,
were found unchanged in landfills…
According to Rathje and Psihoyos (2003),
many things DO NOT break down in
landfills.
Landfills
Fairfax County Landfill
Recycling
The average person generates over 4 pounds of
trash every day and about 1.5 tons of solid waste
per year.
In 2009, Americans produced enough trash to
circle the Earth 24 times.
Over 75% of waste is recyclable, but we only
recycle about 30% of it.
We generate 21.5 million tons of food waste each
year. If we composted that food, it would reduce
the same amount of greenhouse gas as taking 2
million cars off the road.
Recycling
Recycling one aluminum can saves enough
energy to listen to a full album on your
iPod.
Recycling 100 cans could light your
bedroom for two weeks.
Recycling aluminum cans saves 95% of
the energy used to make alum cans from
new material.
Americans throw away 25,000,000 plastic
bottles every hour.
Recycling
Over 87% of Americans have access to
curbside or drop-off paper recycling programs.
In 2009, Americans threw away almost 9
million tons of glass. That could fill enough
tractor trailers to stretch from NYC to LA and
back!
In 2010, paper recycling had increased 89%
from 1990.
If every American recycled just one-tenth of
their newspapers, we could save about 25
million trees each year.
Recycling
One recycled tin can would save enough
energy to power a television for 3 hours.
One recycled glass bottle would save
enough energy to power a computer for
25 minutes.
One recycled plastic bottle would save
enough energy to power a 60-watt light
bulb for 3 hours.
Over 70% less energy is required to
recycle paper compared with making it
from raw materials.
Recycling
Every year nearly 900,000,000 trees are
cut down to provide raw materials for
American paper and pulp mills.
Every year we generate around 14 million
tons of food waste which is 106 pounds of
food waste per person 570,000 tons of
this is composted for a 4.1% recovery
rate. The rest, or 13.4 million tons is
incinerated or landfilled and occupies 6.3
million cubic yards of landfilled MSW.
Recycling
Americans throw away about 28 billion
bottles and jars every year.
Americans make more than 200 million
tons of garbage each year, enough to fill
Bush Stadium from top to bottom twice a
day!
It takes a 15-year-old tree to produce 700
grocery bags.
Disposable diapers last centuries in
landfills. An average baby will go through
8,000 of them!
Recycling
Each year American throw away
25,000,000,000 Styrofoam cups. Even
500 years from now, the foam coffee cup
you used this morning will be sitting in a
landfill.
In 1995, Americans recycled 9.5% of all
plastic packaging, including 26% of all
plastic bottles. Most of the plastic recycled
is #1 PETE soda bottles and #2 HDPE milk
bottles. Most of the #3 through 7 plastics
are not easily recyclable.
Recycling
In 1996 Americans recycled 21.6 million
tons of corrugated cardboard for a 73%
recovery rate in 1996 (industry data) By
tonnage, corrugated boxes are the most
recycled product in the waste stream.
Corrugated boxes produced in the U.S
contain 37% recycled content.
Recycling
In 1998, 62.8% of the 102 billion
aluminum cans produced were recycled.
That totals 64 billion cans , 46 billion more
than in 1991, Aluminum can recycling
saves 95% of the energy needed to make
aluminum from bauxite ore. Energy
savings in 1998 alone were enough to
light a city the size of Pittsburgh for ten
years.
Recycling
The Container Recycling Institute (CRI)
estimates that the 36 billion aluminum
cans landfilled last year had a scrap value
of more than $600 million.
Over the past twenty years we’ve worth
over $12 billion on today’s market. Some
day we may be mining our landfills for the
resources we’ve buried.
Recycling
There were 270 million scrap tires discarded
in 1998, 84% of which were passenger car
tires, 15% were from light and heavy
trucks. These tires weigh 3.4 million tons.
Of these, 177.5 million of these tires are
being reused, mostly chipped and burnt for
their high BTU content.
Somewhere between 500 and 800 million
scrap tires are in scrap tire piles across the
US. Each passenger car tire contains 7
gallons of oil.
Recycling
Over 98% of lead acid or car batteries are
being recycled. Also a large number of
rechargeable Ni-Cd batteries are being
recycled. You can usually take these
batteries back to where you bought them
for recycling or go to
http://www.rbrc.org/call2recycle/ to find
the nearest location.
Questions?
Pest Management
What is a Pest?
Pest: a species
that we want to
eliminate or
reduce in
abundance
Including
microbes,
fungi, plants or
animals
Some Notable Pests
Trypanosomiasis in cattle in Africa
Weeds in crop fields
Dutch elm disease
American Chestnut blight
Kudzu vine
Nutria around the Chesapeake Bay
Some insects (Mosquitoes)
Economic Impacts?
Crop Failures
Loss of aesthetics
Threats to domestic animals
Threats to human health
Loss of natural habitat/wild animals
Trypanosomiasis in Domestic Animals
Mountain Pine Beetle
(Dendroctonus ponderosae)
Hemlock Wooly Adelgid
(Adelges tsugae)
Methods of Pest Control
Options:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Crop management
Immunization
Genetic alteration
Biological control
Integrated pest management
Modes of Pesticide Action
Direct mortality
Attraction to a lethal trap
Japanese beetle trap
Disruption of mating
Release of sterile males
1. Chemical Pesticides
A great variety developed since
1940s.
Very good initial success record.
Remain the most important single
means of controlling pests.
But there are some continued
failures.
Drawbacks
Harmful effect on non-target species.
Loss of predators or parasitoids of the pest.
Development of resistance by the pest:
Type of chemical,
Pesticide application frequency,
Gene pool of pest species,
Generation time of pest species or
Presence of other individuals in the
ecosystem.
DDT
Dichloro,-diphenyl,-trichloroethane
Created in 1939 by P.H. Mueller.
First widespread use in 1944 in Italy.
Widely used in agriculture 1945-1970s.
Over 675,000 tons sprayed on crops in
USA.
Rachel Carson’s was “Silent Spring”
published in 1962.
DDT
Was banned in USA in 1972.
Banned internationally by UN in 2001.
But it is still used in about 25
countries against malaria-carrying
mosquitoes.
It bioaccumulates in organisms and
biomagnifies in top carnivores.
Pesticide Persistence in Soil
Low Persistence
(half-life 30 days)
Moderate Persistence
(half-life 30-100 days)
High Persistence
(half-life >100 days)
Aldicarb
Captan
Dalapon
Dicamba
Malathion
Methyl Parathion
Oxamyl
2,4-D
2,4,5-T
Aldrin
Atrazine
Carbaryl
Carbofuran
Diazinon
Endrin
Fonofos
Glyphosate
Heptachlor
Linuron
Parathion
Phorate
Simazine
Terbacil
TCA
Picloram
Bromacil
Trifluralin
Chlordane
Paraquat
Lindane
Carbofuran (furadan)
2. Crop Management
Monoculture vs. Polyculture
Weedy Margins
Monoculture
Recurrent monoculture problems.
“take-all” soil fungus pest of wheat
Competing weeds can be reduced
by eliminating contamination of
seed stock.
Shifting cultivation or rotation of
crops helps reduce pests.
Polyculture
Allows more widely spaced host
individuals.
Cactoblastis moth and Opuntia cactus
rust fungi and cereal crops
Reduces monophagous insect pests.
Organic Foods
According to the USDA:
Organic agriculture produces products using methods that
preserve the environment and avoid most synthetic
materials, such as pesticides and antibiotics.
Organic farmers, ranchers, and food processors follow a
defined set of standards to produce organic food and fiber.
Congress described general organic principles in the
Organic Foods Production Act, and the USDA defines
specific organic standards. These standards cover the
product from farm to table, including soil and water quality,
pest control, livestock practices, and rules for food
additives (www.usda.gov).
Organic Foods
Organic farms and processors:
Preserve natural resources and biodiversity.
Support animal health and welfare.
Provide access to the outdoors so that
animals can exercise their natural behaviors.
Only use approved materials.
Do not use genetically modified ingredients.
Receive annual onsite inspections.
Separate organic food from non-organic
food.
Weedy Margins
A weedy margin on a monoculture
field may convey benefits of a
polyculture.
Nettles may harbor parasitoid of aphid
pest.
Or the weedy margin may be a
refugium for the pest.
Bacterial fireblight pest of fruit trees
Cucumber mosaic virus of lettuce
3. Immunization
Works only on animal hosts.
Oral vaccine fed to wild foxes reduced
rabies in Europe.
Oral immunocontraceptives for white
tailed deer.
4. Genetic Alteration of Host
Make host more resistant to or tolerant
of the pest by:
selective breeding
treatment of host
to promote mutations
genetic engineering
Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs)
Is actually recombinant DNA and was
discovered in 1946.
The main crops herbicide and pesticide
resistant crops include soybeans, corn,
cotton, potatoes, eggplant,
strawberries, tomatoes, lettuce,
cantaloupe, carrots, papaya, sugar and
canola.
Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs)
More than one example exists of a
genetic modification saving an
important crop from extinction due to
pests or disease.
Most modifications are not harmful to
humans and have been tested for
many years now.
Widely accepted in Europe.
5. Biological Control
Classic technique:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Identify control organism.
Introduce control organism.
Control organism removes pest.
Control organism remains in small
quantities.
Successful Examples
An exotic pest
weed (Klamath
weed) in California
was controlled by
an introduced
insect herbivore
(Chrysolina).
Skeleton weed
controlled by rust
fungus.
More Successes
Spanish rabbit
(Oryctolagus)
was a pest in
northern Europe,
Britain and
Australia now it
is controlled by
myxoma virus
from Brazil.
Biopesticides
There are pest soil-borne fungi that
cause diseases in crop plants.
Seven types of bacteria and 15
fungal species show some control
ability but must be applied regularly.
Soil-borne Fungal Pathogen
Modes of control:
Competition for resources in the soil.
Antibiotic chemical production.
Toxin production:
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
Success Rates
When controlling introduced insects:
controlling pest insects
controlling pest weeds
40%
30%
Selecting Control Species
Will it establish and persist in
the new area?
1.
Invaders have:
wide geographic range,
the ability to multiply rapidly,
self-fertilizing abilities,
ecological distinction from native
competitors and
native ranges with similar climates.
Do Numbers Matter?
The more the
better.
More means
higher cost.
Seek a number
that balances
cost, density and
breadth of
distribution.
Abundance of the Pest?
Too
successful?
Intermediate
success (or
virulence)
may be
optimal.
Specificity?
The more pest
species-specific
the control
organism is,
the better.
Where to Look?
Start the search in
the geographic
area from which
the pest came.
May be rare and
inconspicuous.
Will the Pest Develop Resistance?
Usually because of:
characteristics of
the pest,
pest refugia or
faster evolution in
control species.
Non-target Organisms?
Successful control species
introductions are at about 10%.
Of those 5-20% also caused
undesired side-effects.
Predatory snail on Pacific islands
Mongoose on many tropical islands
Myxoma virus on other rabbits
Avoid Side-effects?
Avoid generalist predators and
parasitoids.
Conduct extensive pre-introduction
test in both the lab and the field.
Be concerned about native species
with ecological niches similar to the
control species and to the pest.
6. Integrated Pest Management
Definition: Simultaneous or planned
sequential use of more than one
control measure.
Can include:
agronomic practices
mechanical practices
physical practices
biological practices
chemical practices
Natural Ecosystems
Invasive pests may cause
devastation even in
complex natural
ecosystems.
Asian fungus
and the American
Chestnut
Invasive
Burmese Python
“This thing is monstrous — it’s about a foot wide,” said Kenneth Krysko,
manager of the museum’s herpetology collection, in a release. “It means
these snakes are surviving a long time in the wild, there’s nothing
stopping them and the native wildlife are in trouble.”
Native Pest Effects
Native pest
species may
cause periodic
destruction.
spruce budworm
periodically afflicts
northern and
western conifers
Native Pest Effects
A parasitic nematode
(Paraelaphostrongylus)
may infect 50% of a
deer population and yet
cause no apparent
effects.
The same nematode in
moose populations
causes severe
debilitation and perhaps
death.
Native Pest Effects
An ectoparasitic insect
(Oeciacus) feds on the
blood of cliff swallows.
Host Defense
1. Selection for resistance in the host
species:
immune system response of vertebrates,
toxic secondary chemical production by
plants and some animals,
physical barriers like shells or
exoskeletons, or
low resource quality in the host makes
them not worth attacking.
Host Defense
2. Pest species is attacked by its own
predators or parasites.
3. Low density of host species deters
spread of pest which is speciesspecific.
Host Defense
4. Low density of
pest species
deters spread
of because it is
speciesspecific.
Host-Parasite Models
There is a critical host species density
needed to maintain the pest species.
There is a critical pest species density
needed to maintain the control species.
Low host species density can be
compensated by high pest species dispersal
ability.
Low pest species density can be
compensated by high control species
dispersal ability.
Host-Parasite Models
A pest that kills its host more quickly
requires a dense host population to
survive.
High capacity of the pest to find and
infect hosts leads to cyclic increases
and decreases in abundance of both
host and pest.
Questions?
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